Computerized Textile Mill

This photo demonstrates how much textile production has changed as a result of industrialization. In this modern textile mill, many machines whir busily in an initial stage of processing fiber into fabric. The process is almost entirely coordinated and controlled by computer, with a small staff of managers, inspectors, and technicians to ensure quality and efficiency.

Joan of Arc

At the age of 13, Joan of Arc convinced a board of theologians that she had a divine mission to save France during the 100 Years’ War with England. She led the French in several military victories over the English in 1429. When she led an unauthorized campaign the following year, she was tried and convicted of heresy for answering to God before the Roman Catholic church. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in 1431, but after 25 years the church overturned the conviction and later canonized her.















At the age of 13, Joan of Arc convinced a board of theologians that she had a divine mission to save France during the 100 Years’ War with England. She led the French in several military victories over the English in 1429. When she led an unauthorized campaign the following year, she was tried and convicted of heresy for answering to God before the Roman Catholic church. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake in 1431, but after 25 years the church overturned the conviction and later canonized her.

Ice-Age Migration Routes

Humans are believed to have crossed into the Americas before the end of the last ice age, when a natural land bridge called Beringia linked present-day Siberia and Alaska. During the coldest part of the ice age, about 23,000 to 19,000 years ago, vast glaciers blanketed much of the northern hemisphere, making travel south toward what is now the continental United States virtually impossible. By about 14,000 years ago, as the climate warmed, a passable route opened along the Pacific Coast. Then, about 2,500 years later, an ice-free corridor opened in the contintental interior as the great ice sheets retreated. Some scientists believe both routes were used by early migrating peoples.

Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great was the first emperor of Rome to convert to Christianity. During his reign, Christians, previously persecuted, gained freedom of worship. He gave huge estates and other gifts to the Christian church. He established a capital in the eastern provinces, naming it Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey).

The First Crusade

In response to the announcement by Pope Urban II of a Crusade to the Holy Land in 1095, Christian forces from western Europe converged on Constantinople, where they united with Byzantine forces to attack Seljuk armies in Anatolia and Muslim armies in Syria and Palestine. By 1099 the Crusaders had achieved their goal—the capture of the city of Jerusalem. However, Christian territories acquired during the First Crusade were gradually lost over the next 200 years. Jerusalem was recaptured by Muslim forces in 1187, and the last Christian stonghold in the Holy Land fell in 1291.

Spanish Ships of Exploration

On August 3, 1492, Christopher Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, with three small Spanish sailing-ships, the Pinta, the Niña, and the Santa María, on a voyage that eventually led him to America. Small ships such as these were used by the Spanish and Portuguese in their explorations in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Effects of the Black Death

The Black Death, an epidemic of plague in Europe that lasted from 1347 to 1351, resulted in the deaths of almost one-quarter of Europe’s population. The Black Death was the first in a cycle of plagues in Europe that continued into the 18th century. Shown here, the French city of Marseille is devastated by a later outbreak of plague.